Puerto Rico
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico) is a commonwealth of the United States located east of the Dominican Republic in the northeastern Caribbean. Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Greater Antilles, includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands and keys, including Mona, Vieques, and Culebra.
The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States is the subject of ongoing debate in the island. Supporters of maintaining the status quo (i.e., Commonwealth status) insist that upon attaining this status, Puerto Rico entered into a voluntary association with the U.S. "in the nature of a compact", but opponents of Commonwealth disagree: according to them, Puerto Rico is no more than an unincorporated organized territory of the U.S., subject to the plenary powers of the United States Congress. According to several status polls, nearly half the population believes that Puerto Rico should join the United States as a state.

History
When Europeans first arrived, the island of Puerto Rico was inhabited by a group of Arawak Indians known as Taínos. The Taínos called the island "Borikén." The first European contact was made by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage to the Antilles, on November 19, 1493. Some say that Puerto Rico was not discovered by Columbus but by Martin Alonzo Pinzón in 1492 when he separated from Columbus and went exploring on his own. The Pinzón family was given one year by the Spanish court to start a settlement in Puerto Rico which would give them a claim to the island. However, they did not succeed. Originally named San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, the island ultimately took the name of Puerto Rico (Rich Port), while the name San Juan is now delegated to its capital and largest city. Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León became the island's first governor to take office, while Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the first appointed governor, although he never arrived on the island.
The island was soon colonized and briefly became an important stronghold and port for the Spanish empire in the Caribbean. However, colonial emphasis during the late 17th–18th centuries focused on the more prosperous mainland territories, leaving the island impoverished of settlers. Concerned about threats from its European enemies, over the centuries various forts and walls were built to protect the port of San Juan. Fortresses such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristóbal were built. The French, Dutch and English made attempts to capture Puerto Rico, but failed to wrest long-term occupancy of the island.
In 1809, while Napoleon occupied the majority of the Iberian peninsula, a populist assembly based in Cadiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the right to send representatives to the Spanish Court. The representative Ramon Power y Giralt died soon after arriving in Spain; and constitutional reforms were reversed when autocratic monarchy was restored. Nineteenth century reforms augmented the population and economy, and expanded the local character of the island. After the rapid gains of independence by the South and Central American states in the first part of the century, Puerto Rico and Cuba became the sole New World remnants of the large Spanish empire.
Toward the end of the 19th century, poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as "El Grito de Lares". The uprising was easily and quickly crushed. Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican nation, and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Later, another political stronghold was the autonomist movement originated by Román Baldorioty de Castro and, toward the end of the century, by Luis Muñoz Rivera. In 1897, Múñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to a Charters of Autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico. The following year, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to annul any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure.
On July 25, 1898 at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico, being a colony of Spain, was invaded by the United States of America with a landing at Guánica. Spain was forced to cede Puerto Rico, along with Cuba and the Phillippines, to the United States under the Treaty of Paris (1898) [1]. The twentieth century began under the military regime of the United States with officials, including the governor, appointed by the President of the United States. In 1917, the Jones-Shafroth Act approved by the United States Congress granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship so that they could be recruited as soldiers for WWI. Natural disasters and the Great Depression impoverished the island. Some political leaders demanded change; some, like Pedro Albizu Campos, would lead a nationalist (The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party) movement in favor of independence. He would eventually die by what he claimed was a conspiracy set in place by the U.S. Federal Government. Múñoz Rivera initially favored independence, but saw a severe decline of the Puerto Rican economy, as well as growing violence and uprisings, at the hands of the U.S. government and opted to create the "commonwealth" option as an eventual stepping stone to full independence.
Change in the nature of governance of the island came about during the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations, as a form of compromise spearheaded by Luis Muñoz Marín and others, and which culminated with the appointment by President Harry S. Truman in 1946 of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesus T. Piñero. In 1947, the United States granted the right to democratically elect the governor of Puerto Rico. Luis Muñoz Marín would become the first elected governor of Puerto Rico in the 1948 general elections.
Starting at this time, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the continental U.S.A. in search of better economic conditions. In 1945 there were 13,000 Puerto Ricans living in New York City - by 1955 there were 700,000, and by the mid-1960s there were over a million.
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. Subsequently, Truman allowed for a genuinely democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own constitution [2].
Puerto Rico adopted its own constitution in 1952 which adopted the name "commonwealth" for the body politic and which is used by many as the name of Puerto Rico's current relationship with the United States [3][4]. During the 1950s Puerto Rico experienced a rapid industrialization, with such projects as Operation Bootstrap which aimed to industrialize Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based into manufacturing-based.
Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Three locally-authorized plebiscites have been held in recent decades to decide whether Puerto Rico should request independence, enhanced commonwealth status, or statehood. Narrow victories by commonwealth supporters over statehood advocates have not yielded substantial changes in the relationship between the island and the United States. In the latest status referendum of 1998, commonwealth status (or "None of the above") won over statehood with 50.2% of the votes, and support for the pro-statehood party (Partido Nuevo Progresista or PNP) and the pro-commonwealth party (Partido Popular Democrático or PPD) is about equal. The only major independence party on the island, the Partido Independentista Puertorriqueňo or PIP, usually receives 5-6% of the votes in the elections though there are several smaller independence groups like the Macheteros (or Boricua Popular Army). On December 22, 2005, a task force created by President Clinton and appointed by President George W. Bush called on Congress to hold the first federally-authorized vote ever for Puerto Rican voters to decide whether they wished to continue their current relationship, described as an unincorporated territory subject to the will of Congress, or whether they wish to choose in a subsequent vote among permanent non-territorial options, which the report enumerates as statehood or independence. The Legislature, as well as the political parties, were gearing up in early 2006 to lobby Congress to address the Presidential task force recommenations.

Geography
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of the latter five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona is uninhabited through large parts of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources.
The mainland measures some 170 km by 60 km (105 miles by 35 miles). It has a population of approximately 4 million. The capital city, San Juan, is located on the main island's north coast and has a population of approximately 430,000.
The mainland is mostly mountainous with coastal areas in the north and south regions of the island. The main mountainous range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation point of Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta (1338 meters), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque with a maximum elevation of 1,065m.
Some beautiful beaches on the western side of the island are Jobos Beach, Maria's Beach, Domes Beach and Sandy Beach.
Puerto Rico has nine lakes (none of them natural) and more than 50 rivers. Most of these rivers are born in the "Cordillera Central." The rivers in the northern region of the island are bigger and with higher flow capacity than those of the south region.

Politics
The government of Puerto Rico is based on the Republican system composed of 3 branches: the Executive branch headed by the Governor, the Legislative branch consisting of a bicameral Legislative Assembly (a Senate and a House of Representatives) and the Judicial branch. The legal system is based on a mix of the Civil Law and the Common Law systems. The governor as well as legislators are elected by popular vote every four years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor and approved by the senate. Puerto Rico divided into 78 municipalities, each of which elect a mayor and a municipal legislature.
In 1950, the US Congress afforded Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention, contingent on the results of a referendum, where the electorate would determine if they wished to organize their own government pursuant to a constitution of their own choosing. Puerto Ricans expressed their support for this measure in a 1951 referendum, which gave voters a yes-or-no choice for the commonwealth status, defined as a ‘permanent association with a federal union.’ A second referendum was held to approve the constitution, which was adopted in 1952. Prior to approving the new constitution, the Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. The convention on February 4 of 1952 approved resolution 22 which chose in english the word “Commonwealth,” meaning a “politically organized community” or “State,” which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Unable to translate the word into spanish, the convention adopted a translation inspired by the Irish Free State called “Estado Libre Asociado” (ELA) to represent the compact between the people of Puerto Rico and the United States, which is literally translated into english as “Associated Free State” .
Under the 1952 constitution, Puerto Rico is a Commonwealth and is permitted a degree of autonomy similar to that of a state of the Union. Puerto Rico does not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress; neither does it have any electors in the U.S. Electoral College, and therefore Puerto Rican citizens do not participate in the U.S. Presidential elections, although a political party can have state-like voting delegations to the nominating conventions of both major national parties. A non-voting Resident Commissioner is elected by the residents of Puerto Rico to the U.S. Congress acting as a delegate of the people of Puerto Rico. Residents of the island do not pay federal income tax on income from island sources, although they pay federal payroll taxes, which have a particularly heavy impact on Puerto Rico's relatively low-income workers. Although they pay hefty local taxes, island residents are not subject to federal income taxation, as a result of a US Supreme Court Decision that the United States treaty that acquired Puerto Rico from Spain superseded the United States Constitution, so that the United States citizens of Puerto Rico are not subject to the Revenue Clause of the United States Constitution. Further, island residents pay social security taxes and other federal taxes. Also, they have limited access to several key federal programs. As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans are subject to military service and most federal laws.
For the past fifty years, a single issue has dominated Puerto Rican politics: its political status vis-à-vis the United States. A Commonwealth associated to the US since 1952, Puerto Rico today is torn by profound ideological rifts, as represented by its political parties, which stand for the current relationship or the two distinct future political scenarios: the status quo, statehood, and independence. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current status, the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence.
In 1967, the Legislative Assembly tested political interests of the Puerto Rican people by passing a plebiscite Act that allowed a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options. Puerto Rican leaders had lobbied for such an opportunity repeatedly, in 1898, 1912, 1914, 1919, 1923, 1929, 1932, 1939, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1956, and 1960. Following the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in Congressional committees. In a 1993 plebiscite, in which Congress played a more substantial role, the commonwealth status option on PR’s status received 48% of the vote, with 46% voting for statehood, 4% for independence, and a voter turnout of 73% of the voting population.
Subsequently, a 1998 plebiscite presented a choice among statehood and three other status formula defined by the pro-statehood legislative majority: commonwealth status, independence, and a form of free association under a treaty with the United States. Provision was also made for a fifth choice: "none of the above," the rejection of all such status options. In the plebiscite, the commonwealth status was depicted, as subject to the plenary powers of Congress under the territorial clause, a depiction shared by Bill Clinton, the president at the time, as well as his predecessor, with a revocable US citizenship. The pro-commonwealth party, unwilling to favor commonwealth status if subject to the plenary powers of Congress and entailing a type of statutory American citizenship revocable at the will of Congress, campaigned for the fifth choice, which obtained 50.3% of the vote, as compared to 46.5% for statehood, 2.5% for independence, 0.3% for the type of free association presented in the ballot, and a 0.1% percent for commonwealth as defined by the legislature. The winning choice was thus "none of the above."
Because past processes for self-determination in Puerto Rico have not had Congressional support, the political parties in power have manipulated ballot options to favor the alternative of their predilection. The other political parties tend to resist and voice their concerns over the legitimacy of the process.Ultimately, every vote fails as either non-binding upon United States Congress or because viable and appropriate status options have been excluded from the ballot.
Puerto Ricans living on the island are not counted among the Hispanics residing in the U.S.; in fact, they are not included in the U.S. population count at all, although all Puerto Ricans are statutory U.S. citizens. Puerto Rico also is not included in the Current Population Surveys that the Census Bureau conducts to update its decennial census.
On December 29, 2005, William Miranda Marin, mayor of the municipality of Caguas, urged Puerto Rican governor Anibal Acevedo Vila to sue the United States for $100,000,000,000, based on what he deemed as "damages suffered by the country" as a consequence of the status given to Puerto Rico in 1952 as a self-governing commonwealth of the United States. He also said to a local newspaper that he thinks Puerto Rico should become a sovereign state (in Spanish). His comments were made after the Presidential Task Force Report,composed of high-level officials from major federal departments appointed by President George W. Bush,suggested that a Federally sanctioned plebiscite provided by Congress should take place in Puerto Rico during 2006 to decide the island's political future.

Religion
The Roman Catholic religion has been historically dominant and is the religion of the majority of Puerto Ricans (census: 70%), although the presence of Protestant, Latter-Day Saint (Mormon) and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under American sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an interconfessional country. Protestantism was repressed under the Spanish regime. For example, the first non-Catholic church, Holy Trinity Anglican church in Ponce, now a parish of the Diocese of Puerto Rico of the Episcopal Church of the United States, was not allowed to ring its church bell until American troops marched through Ponce after landing at Guanica harbor on July 25, 1898.
Taíno religious practices have to a degree been rediscovered/reinvented by a few handfuls of advocates. Kongo belief, known as Mayombe or Palo, has been around since the days of the arrival of enslaved Africans. Although Santeria (stronger and more organized in Cuba) is practiced by some, Palo mayombe (an African belief system of Bantu origin) finds more adherence among individuals who practice some form of African Traditional Religion.

Languages
The official languages of the island are Spanish and English. Spanish is the primary language in government; English is taught as a foreign language in schools. Spanish is the main language of Puerto Ricans.
In 1991, Governor Rafael Hernández Colón signed a law declaring Spanish as the sole official language of the island's government. Upon signing this law into effect, English had lost its status as an official second language. While many applauded the governor's decision, mainly members of the parties supporting commonwealth-status and indepedence, statehood supporters saw it as a threat to their ideology. The signing of the law also brought the island acclaim, as the people of Puerto Rico won the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award in literature in 1991. The award is given annually to individuals and organizations worldwide for their defense and contribution to the growth of the Spanish language by Principe Felipe of Spain.
Upon his election as governor in 1993, Governor Pedro Rosselló overturned the law and re-established English as an official language. This was seen by many as a move by the pro-statehood governor to move the island closer to statehood, something that never came about under his two consecutive four-year terms.
As of 1996, an estimated 3,437,120 people used Spanish as their primary language and 82,000 spoke English. The literacy rate, as of 2002, is about 94%. Even though only 82,000 people use English as a main language the large majority of Puerto Ricans living in metropolitan areas are bilingual.
 

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